Submit articles online
ISMPO
THIEME

Year (Archive)

Year

Issues

Search

Recent Articles

IJMPO—A Journey of a Thousand Miles

Author : Padmaj S. Kulkarni

Coronavirus Disease 2019 Treatment—T-Cells Hold the Key in Severe Cases

Author : Kunal Das, Nitika Agrawal, Mansi Kala, Rakhee Khanduri

Why Is China Importing COVID-19 Vaccine Now?

Author : Purvish M. Parikh

Smokeless Tobacco Warnings in Indian Mass Media: Intention and Attempts to Quit

CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 · Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol 2019; 40(03): 413-419

DOI: DOI: 10.4103/ijmpo.ijmpo_135_19

Author : Madewell, Zachary J.; Kolaja, Claire A.

Abstract

Introduction: In India, over 200 million people use smokeless tobacco (SLT), which increases the risk of cancers. Studies have demonstrated mass media campaigns effectively reduce smoking tobacco prevalence, but few have assessed their impact on SLT cessation. Objectives: This study used data from the Global Adult Tobacco Surveys (GATS) in 2009–2010 and 2016–2017 to examine associations between SLT health warnings in mass media, and intention and attempts to quit using SLT. We also compared the proportion of SLT users who noticed mass media warnings between 2009–2010 and 2016–2017. Materials and Methods: Over 16,000 and 15,000 current SLT users from the GATS-1 and GATS-2, respectively, were used for analysis. Weighted logistic regression models were used to analyze associations between noticed health warnings on SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, billboards, cinemas, internet, vehicles, and walls, and intention and attempts to quit SLT. Results: In final models, the odds of intention and attempts to quit were highest among those who noticed warnings in newspapers/magazines (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.50; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.30–1.74) and the internet (AOR: 1.60; 95% CI: 1.12–2.29), respectively. Warnings on SLT packages, television, billboards, radio, vehicles, and walls were also associated with increased cessation behavior. More noticed warnings on SLT packages, television, billboards, and newspapers/magazines in GATS-2 than GATS-1, but fewer heard radio warnings. Conclusions: Among Indian SLT users, we found evidence that SLT warnings in mass media may promote cessation behavior. Health warnings in mass media could play an important role in the overall strategy to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with SLT use.

Keywords

Attempts to quit - cessation behavior - Indian adults - intention to quit - mass media - smokeless tobacco


Publication History

Received: 04 June 2019

Accepted: 20 October 2019

Article published online:
03 June 2021

© 2019. Indian Society of Medical and Paediatric Oncology. This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonDerivative-NonCommercial-License, permitting copying and reproduction so long as the original work is given appropriate credit. Contents may not be used for commercial purposes, or adapted, remixed, transformed or built upon. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Thieme Medical and Scientific Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
A-12, 2nd Floor, Sector 2, Noida-201301 UP, India


Abstract

Introduction: In India, over 200 million people use smokeless tobacco (SLT), which increases the risk of cancers. Studies have demonstrated mass media campaigns effectively reduce smoking tobacco prevalence, but few have assessed their impact on SLT cessation. Objectives: This study used data from the Global Adult Tobacco Surveys (GATS) in 2009–2010 and 2016–2017 to examine associations between SLT health warnings in mass media, and intention and attempts to quit using SLT. We also compared the proportion of SLT users who noticed mass media warnings between 2009–2010 and 2016–2017. Materials and Methods: Over 16,000 and 15,000 current SLT users from the GATS-1 and GATS-2, respectively, were used for analysis. Weighted logistic regression models were used to analyze associations between noticed health warnings on SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, billboards, cinemas, internet, vehicles, and walls, and intention and attempts to quit SLT. Results: In final models, the odds of intention and attempts to quit were highest among those who noticed warnings in newspapers/magazines (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.50; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.30–1.74) and the internet (AOR: 1.60; 95% CI: 1.12–2.29), respectively. Warnings on SLT packages, television, billboards, radio, vehicles, and walls were also associated with increased cessation behavior. More noticed warnings on SLT packages, television, billboards, and newspapers/magazines in GATS-2 than GATS-1, but fewer heard radio warnings. Conclusions: Among Indian SLT users, we found evidence that SLT warnings in mass media may promote cessation behavior. Health warnings in mass media could play an important role in the overall strategy to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with SLT use.


Keywords

Attempts to quit - cessation behavior - Indian adults - intention to quit - mass media - smokeless tobacco

Introduction

India is the world's second-largest consumer and third largest producer of tobacco. There are over 300 million smokeless tobacco (SLT) users worldwide, of which 206 million (68.7%) live in India.[1] In India, the prevalence of SLT use among adults is 21.4% with the highest use among men, those in rural areas, and of lower socioeconomic status (SES) and educational attainment.[2]

Popular SLT products in India include khaini, gutkha, paan with tobacco, mishri, gul, bajjar, and gudakhu, which contain some combination of dried tobacco leaves, slaked lime, areca nut, and catechu.[3] They are often placed in the mandibular or labial groove and sucked slowly for 10–15 min, occasionally overnight. Many people use SLT as a dentifrice, believing SLT has a germicidal chemical that cleans teeth.[1],[3] SLT products contain 28 carcinogens, including nitrosamines, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and aldehydes. The placement of quid in the mouth between cheeks and gums increases the risk of tumors of the gingiva, oropharynx, esophagus, and stomach. SLT may also cause leukoplakia, tooth abrasion/attrition, dental caries, gingivitis, periodontitis, cardiovascular disease, and stroke.[1] India has one of the world's highest oral cancer rates with >50% attributable to SLT. India accounts for three quarters of global deaths attributed to SLT and global disability-adjusted life years. Direct medical expenses of treating SLT-related illnesses in India exceed $285 million annually. All tobacco-related deaths in India may exceed 1.5 million annually by 2020.[1]

To address the use and consequences of tobacco products, India initiated the National Tobacco Control Programme in 2007–2009 in 21 states.[2] The program oversees the implementation of tobacco laws, promoting educational campaigns, establishing cessation centers, and disseminating anti-tobacco messaging in the media.[2] By 2013, the program was expanded to all 29 states, and efforts were made for a National Level Public Awareness Campaign.

Many studies have demonstrated mass media campaigns effectively inform the public of the dangers of smoking tobacco and promote quitting.[4],[5] Campaign reach, intensity, and duration influence program success. Fewer studies have examined the impact of mass media campaigns of SLT health consequences on SLT usage. One study in 2009 demonstrated mass media campaigns of the harms of SLT successfully increased knowledge and negative attitudes toward SLT.[6] However, it is unclear whether these media campaigns promoted SLT cessation behavior. This study uses cross-sectional nationwide data from 2009–2010 to 2016–2017 Global Adult Tobacco Surveys (GATS) in India to examine associations between exposure to SLT health warnings in mass media (SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, billboards, cinemas, internet, public transportation vehicles, and public walls), and intention and attempts to quit using SLT. A secondary objective was to ascertain whether the proportion of SLT users who noticed health warnings in mass media changed between 2009–2010 and 2016–2017.


Materials and Methods

Study design

Launched in 2007 by the World Health Organization (WHO), GATS collects tobacco control indicators among 25 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where most tobacco users reside.[7] The first GATS survey in India (GATS-1) was administered by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), Government of India, with support from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO, and Research Triangle Institute International.[8] GATS-1 was a cross-sectional household survey conducted in 2009–2010 to monitor adult tobacco use, track tobacco control indicators, and assess the impact of tobacco control efforts, including the Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act of 2003.[8]

The second GATS survey (GATS-2) was launched in 2016–2017 by MoHFW and Tata Institute of Social Science (TISS) to measure the impact of tobacco control legislation since GATS-1.[2] Both surveys covered 99.9% of the population and were nationally representative of India's six geographic regions.[2],[8] Both surveys used pretested questionnaires, which were translated into 19 Indian languages for the administration in different states and included information on background characteristics, tobacco smoking, SLT, cessation, secondhand smoke, economics, media, knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions.[2],[8]


Study population

GATS-1 and GATS-2 used a multistage cluster sampling design, stratified by population density.[2],[8] In urban areas, there were three selection stages: city wards selected with probability proportional-to-size, census enumeration blocks, and households. In rural areas, there were two selection stages: villages stratified by geographical regions selected with probability proportional-to-size and households. During the last stage, one individual was randomly picked from each household.[2],[8]

Both surveys included noninstitutionalized male and female residents aged 15 years and older.[2],[8] Individuals living in student dorms, hospitals, prisons, barracks, or extremely remote or unsafe areas were excluded. Further details of the household sampling design, interview, and data compilation process are available elsewhere.[2],[8]

GATS-1 and GATS-2 sampled a total of 79,690 and 84,047 households, respectively.[8] GATS-1 and GATS-2 had respective household response rates of 96.8% and 96.7% and individual level response rates of 94.8% and 96%. GATS-1 completed 69,296 interviews: 27,471 urban and 41,825 in rural areas.[8] GATS-2 completed 74,037 interviews: 26,488 urban and 47,549 in rural areas.[2]


Ethics statement

This study is based on secondary analysis of India GATS-1 and GATS-2 data. Study protocols and survey materials for GATS-1 were approved by the Ethics Review Committee, Institutional Review Board (IRB) of International Institute for Population Sciences.[8] Study materials for GATS-2 were approved by the IRB of TISS.[2] Consent was obtained from all participants. Parent or guardian consent was required for interviews of minors ages 15–17 years.


Variables

Outcome variables were intention (yes, no) and attempt to quit using SLT (yes, no). “Intention to quit” included “within the next month,” “next 12 months,” and “someday, but not the next 12 months.”

The exposures of interest were noticed health warnings about SLT on SLT product packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, billboards/hoardings, cinemas, internet, public transportation vehicles/stations, and public walls (yes, no).

Covariates included age; sex (female, male); residence (urban, rural); national region (North, Central, East, West, South, Northeast); highest level of education (primary, completed primary, completed secondary, completed college); employment (employed, homemaker, unemployed); visited a doctor within the past 12 months (yes, no); noticed advertisements/signs promoting SLT products in the past 30 days (yes, no); believe SLT use causes serious illness (yes, no); and rules about smoking at home (allowed, not allowed). “Allowed” also included “not allowed, but exceptions,” “no rules,” and “don't know.” Principal components analysis was used to create an SES index from ten variables from GATS-2: has electricity, flush toilet, fixed telephone, cellphone, television, radio, refrigerator, car, motorcycle, and washing machine (yes, no). One component was drawn, which included all ten variables and accounted for 28.4% of the variability in the data [Supplementary Table 1]. These variables were weighted against their eigenvector coefficients. The same component representing SES in GATS-2 was used to represent SES in GATS-1. Scores ranged from 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating greater SES index.


Supplementary Table 1

Principal components analysis of socioeconomic status variables, India Global Adult Tobacco Survey, 2016-2017 (n=15,235)

Analysis

Descriptive statistics were reported for exposures and covariates stratified by survey year. Means and standard deviations were reported for continuous variables (age, SES index) and frequency distributions for categorical variables (sex; education; employment; residence; region; visited doctor; noticed SLT warnings on SLT packages, television, radio, billboards, newspapers/magazines, cinemas, internet, vehicles, walls; noticed signs promoting SLT; home smoking rules; and believe SLT causes illness). T-tests and Chi-square tests were used to assess differences between survey years for continuous and categorical variables, respectively.

Logistic regression models were used to analyze unadjusted (Model 1) and adjusted (Model 2) associations between exposures of interest (noticed health warnings on SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, billboards, cinemas, internet, vehicles, and walls) and outcomes (intention and attempts to quit SLT) for both surveys. Model 2 adjusted for confounders identified a priori from the literature: age,[9],[10] sex,[9] education,[9],[10] employment,[9],[10] SES index,[11] region,[9] urban/rural residence,[9] visited a doctor,[12] home smoking rules,[13],[14] noticed SLT advertisements,[15] and believed SLT causes illness.[16] Tolerance values were used to assess collinearity among all independent variables. Statistical significance, defined as P < 0 class="i" xss=removed>P values were reported. We used SAS V.9.4 (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, North Carolina, USA) for all analyses.

Results

Sample characteristics

There were 16,812 current SLT users in GATS-1 and 15,235 in GATS-2, which after accounting for cluster, strata, and weight factors, represented 25.9% and 21.4% of the population, respectively.

The average participant age for GATS-2 was 42.3 years and 70.8% were male [Table 1]. In GATS-1 and GATS-2, 71.8% and 82.1% of SLT users noticed SLT health warnings in the previous month on SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, or billboards, respectively. More participants noticed SLT warnings on SLT packages, television, billboards, and newspapers/magazines in GATS-2 than GATS-1, but fewer heard warnings on the radio (P < 0>

Characteristic

Eigen vector

Electricity

0.29

Flush toilet

0.34

Fixed telephone

0.14

Cellphone

0.26

Television

0.42

Radio

0.13

Refrigerator

0.43

Car

0.27

Motorcycle

0.37

Washing machine

0.36

Eigen value

2.84
Table 1

Descriptive statistics of smokeless tobacco users, 2009-2010 and 2016-2017 India Global Adult Tobacco Surveys

Intention to quit

For both surveys, unadjusted analyses demonstrated associations between intention to quit SLT and noticed warnings on SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, and billboards (P < 0 href="https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.4103/ijmpo.ijmpo_135_19#TB_2" xss=removed>Table 2]. In GATS-2, unadjusted analyses also revealed associations between intention to quit SLT and noticed SLT warnings on the internet, vehicles, walls, and cinemas (P < 0>

Characteristic

2009-2010

2016-2017

P b

aEstimates include sample weights, cluster, and stratification factors;

bCategorical variables: P value from Chi-square test; continuous variables: P value from t-test;

cSES index was derived from principal components analysis and included: Electricity, a flush toilet, fixed telephone, cellphone, television, radio, refrigerator, car, motorcycle, and washing machine. Score range: 0-3. SLT - Smokeless tobacco; SE - Standard error; SES - Socioeconomic status

Categorical variables (percentage and SE)a

Noticed SLT warnings on/in

SLT packages

62.9 (0.9)

71.6 (0.7)

<0>

Television

24.0 (0.8)

52.0 (0.9)

<0>

The radio

15.0 (0.6)

8.6 (0.5)

<0>

Billboards

14.7 (0.6)

26.8 (0.7)

<0>

Newspapers or magazines

17.3 (0.6)

28.7 (0.8)

<0>

Cinemas

-

20.3 (0.7)

The internet

-

3.3 (0.3)

Public transportation vehicles

-

30.5 (0.8)

Public walls

-

20.3 (0.7)

Noticed signs promoting SLT

21.2 (0.8)

20.8 (0.8)

0.72

Never allowed smoking at home

27.4 (0.8)

39.2 (0.9)

<0>

Believe SLT causes illness

86.3 (0.5)

94.0 (0.3)

<0>

Male sex

65.7 (0.7)

70.8 (0.7)

<0>

Education

College completed

4.0 (0.3)

3.8 (0.3)

<0>

Secondary school completed

11.9 (0.5)

15.4 (0.6)

Primary school completed

28.1 (0.7)

31.8 (0.6)

< Primary>

56.0 (0.8)

49.0 (0.7)

Employment

Employed

69.1 (0.7)

74.2 (0.7)

<0>

Homemaker

21.0 (0.6)

16.6 (0.5)

Unemployed

9.8 (0.4)

9.2 (0.4)

Urban residence

19.9 (0.8)

24.6 (1.0)

<0>

Region

North

1.4 (0.1)

3.0 (0.2)

<0>

Central

36.7 (1.9)

36.4 (1.0)

East

30.7 (1.8)

27.2 (0.8)

West

14.6 (1.1)

15.8 (0.9)

South

11.8 (1.0)

10.6 (0.6)

Northeast

4.8 (0.3)

7.0 (0.2)

Visited a doctor in past year

36.3 (0.7)

39.2 (0.7)

<0>

Continuous variables (mean and SE)

Age

39.5 (0.2)

42.3 (0.3)

<0>

SES indexc

0.8 (0.1)

1.1 (0.1)

<0>

Intention to quit

For both surveys, unadjusted analyses demonstrated associations between intention to quit SLT and noticed warnings on SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, and billboards (P < 0 href="https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.4103/ijmpo.ijmpo_135_19#TB_2" xss=removed>Table 2]. In GATS-2, unadjusted analyses also revealed associations between intention to quit SLT and noticed SLT warnings on the internet, vehicles, walls, and cinemas (P < 0>


Table 2

Unadjusted and adjusteda associationsb between noticed smokeless tobacco health warnings in the media and intention to quit using smokeless tobacco, 2009-2010 and 2016-2017 India Global Adult Tobacco Surveys


In GATS-2, intention to quit SLT was associated with noticed warnings on SLT packages (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.19; 95% CI: 1.04–1.36), newspapers/magazines (AOR: 1.50; 95% CI: 1.30–1.74), billboards (AOR: 1.21; 95% CI: 1.04–1.40), cinemas (AOR: 1.40; 95% CI: 1.21–1.62), public transportation vehicles (AOR: 1.21; 95% CI: 1.04–1.40), and public walls (AOR: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.08–1.47), after adjusting for age, sex, education, employment, SES index, region, residence, visited a doctor, home smoking rules, noticed SLT advertisements, and believed SLT causes illness. Results from GATS-1 were similar, but the intention to quit SLT was also associated with noticed warnings on television (AOR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.03–1.36) and the radio (AOR: 1.44; 95% CI: 1.24–1.68).

Attempted to quit

For both surveys, unadjusted analyses demonstrated associations between attempted to quit SLT and noticed warnings on SLT packages, newspapers/magazines, television, radio, and billboards (P < 0 href="https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.4103/ijmpo.ijmpo_135_19#TB_3" xss=removed>Table 3]. In GATS-2, attempted to quit SLT was also associated with noticed SLT warnings on the internet, vehicles, walls, and cinemas (P < 0>

Characteristic

2009-2010

2016-2017

OR (95% CI)

P

AOR (95% CI)

P

OR (95% CI)

P

AOR (95% CI)

P

aAdjusted for age, sex, education, employment, SES index, region, urban/rural residence, visited a doctor, home smoking rules, noticed SLT advertisements, and believed SLT causes illness. SES index was derived from principal components analysis and included: electricity, a flushed toilet, fixed telephone, cellphone, television, radio, refrigerator, car, motorcycle, and washing machine; bSample weights, cluster, and stratification factors. SLT - Smokeless tobacco; CI - Confidence interval; OR - Odds ratio; AOR - Adjusted OR; SES - Socioeconomic status

Noticed SLT warnings (reference: no)

On SLT packages

1.56 (1.40-1.73)

<0>

1.21 (1.08-1.37)

0.002

1.59 (1.41-1.80)

<0>

1.19 (1.04-1.36)

0.010

In newspapers or magazines

1.78 (1.55-2.05)

<0>

1.43 (1.22-1.66)

<0>

1.82 (1.60-2.07)

<0>

1.50 (1.30-1.74)

<0>

On television

1.31 (1.15-1.50)

<0>

1.18 (1.03-1.36)

0.021

1.42 (1.27-1.59)

<0>

1.11 (0.99-1.25)

0.085

On the radio

1.68 (1.45-1.96)

<0>

1.44 (1.24-1.68)

<0>

1.37 (1.10-1.70)

0.005

1.17 (0.94-1.46)

0.158

On billboards

1.58 (1.35-1.84)

<0>

1.34 (1.13-1.57)

<0>

1.52 (1.33-1.74)

<0>

1.21 (1.04-1.40)

0.015

In cinemas

-

-

-

-

1.74 (1.51-2.00)

<0>

1.40 (1.21-1.62)

<0>

On the internet

-

-

-

-

2.10 (1.44-3.06)

<0>

1.48 (0.99-2.23)

0.057

On public transportation vehicles

-

-

-

-

1.56 (1.37-1.78)

<0>

1.21 (1.04-1.40)

0.015

On public walls

-

-

-

-

1.59 (1.38-1.83)

<0>

1.26 (1.08-1.47)

0.004
Table 3

Unadjusted and adjusteda associationsb between noticed smokeless tobacco health warnings in the media and attempted to quit using smokeless tobacco, 2009-2010 and 2016-2017 India Global Adult Tobacco Surveys

In GATS-2, attempted to quit SLT was associated with noticed warnings on SLT packages (AOR: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.09–1.46), newspapers/magazines (AOR: 1.37; 95% CI: 1.18–1.59), television (AOR: 1.21; 95% CI: 1.04–1.41), radio (AOR: 1.41; 95% CI: 1.11–1.79), billboards (AOR: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.05–1.43), internet (AOR: 1.60; 95% CI: 1.12–2.29), public transportation vehicles (AOR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.14–1.50), and public walls (AOR: 1.20; 95% CI: 1.04–1.40), after adjusting for age, sex, education, employment, SES index, region, residence, visited a doctor, home smoking rules, noticed SLT advertisements, and believed SLT causes illness. Results in GATS-1 were similar.

Discussion

In GATS-2, the odds of intention to quit SLT were highest for SLT users who noticed SLT health warnings in newspapers/magazines, cinemas, and public walls, in that order. The odds of attempting to quit SLT were highest for adults who noticed warnings on the internet, radio, and newspapers/magazines. Anti-tobacco messages on SLT packages, television, billboards, public vehicles, and walls were also associated with greater SLT cessation behavior. More SLT users noticed warnings on SLT packages, television, billboards, and newspapers/magazines in GATS-2 than GATS-1, but fewer heard radio warnings.

SLT users who noticed health warning labels (HWLs) on SLT packages were more likely to intend and attempt to quit SLT. At the time of GATS-1, there were mandated pictorial warnings of scorpions and X-rays of lungs that covered 40% of one side of SLT packages.[17] These warnings were ineffective at communicating information about the dangers of SLT.[18],[19],[20] In 2011, those HWLs were replaced with four graphic HWLs that also only covered 40% of one side of packages, which were also ineffective at promoting cessation behavior.[19] In 2016, India introduced large graphic HWLs that covered 85% of both sides of SLT packages.[2] We found that significantly more SLT users noticed these HWLs on SLT packages in GATS-2 than the HWLs at the time of GATS-1. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to use a nationally representative sample of Indian adults to assess the impact of the updated SLT package warnings on SLT cessation behavior. HWLs covering both sides of SLT packages may induce SLT cessation behavior. This is consistent with studies of the impact of HWLs on cigarette packages.[21],[22] HWLs that elicit fear and include the quitline number may be particularly effective at increasing attempts to quit.[19],[20]

Over twice as many SLT users noticed SLT health warnings on television in GATS-2 compared to GATS-1, which were associated with attempts to quit using SLT. In addition, adults who noticed SLT warnings in cinemas were more likely to intend to quit. In India, 197 million households own televisions, and from 2016 to 2018, television viewership increased by 12%.[23] Although we are unaware of other studies examining associations between SLT warnings in movies or television and SLT cessation behavior, our results are consistent with previous studies of smoking tobacco, which demonstrated health warnings in television and movies increased attempts to quit smoking.[14],[24] In 2006, India mandated ≥30 s anti-tobacco spots, audio disclaimers, and text warnings stating the health consequences of tobacco use be shown at the beginning and middle of all movies and television shows that depict tobacco use.[2] We found these warnings may increase SLT cessation behavior.

Approximately half as many SLT users heard SLT health warnings on the radio in GATS-2 as GATS-1, which were associated with greater attempts to quit in GATS-2. From November 2009 to December 2009, India launched a national mass media campaign focusing on the health consequences of SLT, which included over 11,000 radio spot exposures.[6] Some studies demonstrate that emotionally evocative radio messages are effective at reducing tobacco use.[24],[25] Others do not,[14],[26] citing the lack of visual linkage between the audio messages and health consequences. Over 64% of Indians listen to FM radio every day,[27] but less than one-tenth of SLT users heard radio warnings in 2016–2017. Radio advertisements are cheaper than television advertisements and may be one of the most cost-effective methods of motivating tobacco users to quit.[25]

Although the odds of attempting to quit using SLT were highest among adults, who noticed SLT health warnings on the internet, only 3% of SLT users noticed internet warnings. In India, 627 million people use the internet, up from 420 million in 2017.[28] To the best of our knowledge, no other studies have examined associations between SLT warnings online and SLT cessation behavior, but our results are consistent with a study in Malaysia, which found that internet advertisements were associated with smoking cessation.[29] Rapid internet growth highlights the potential of the web as a vehicle of information about the health consequences of SLT use.

The findings that adults who noticed SLT warnings on public transportation vehicles, stations, walls, or billboards were more likely to intend and attempt to quit using SLT is consistent with other studies.[13],[14],[24],[26] In India, 22.9 million people ride buses, which comprise approximately 90% of the public transportation system in urban areas.[30] Another 8.2 billion passengers use India's rail system annually.[31] Anti-tobacco health warnings in public buses, trains, stations, or walls are effective means of relaying SLT health outcomes[29],[32] and have the potential to reach millions of daily commuters. Billboard warnings must be succinct with large font in strategic locations to be effective.[33] Culturally, sensitive and age- and gender-tailored displays are particularly effective for SLT prevention.[6],[18] Anti-tobacco campaigns employing multiple forms of media in a complementary manner are particularly effective at inducing tobacco cessation behavior.[4],[6],[24]

Our finding that noticing SLT warnings in newspapers/magazines may increase intention and attempts to quit in both surveys is consistent with smoking tobacco literature.[24],[32] In India, 39% of people ≥12 years read newspapers, up 9% from 2014.[34] Concomitantly, more people noticed SLT warnings in newspapers/magazines in GATS-2 than GATS-1.

This study has several limitations. First, GATS-2 was a cross-sectional survey, so we were unable to make causal inferences about relationships between SLT warnings and cessation behavior. Second, variables such as duration and intensity of SLT use were not available. Third, this study relied on self-reported information of SLT usage and cessation behavior, so there may have been social desirability bias. Notwithstanding these limitations, this study uses large, nationally representative samples of Indian adults. Both surveys had response rates of >90%. GATS is the global standard for monitoring the impact of tobacco control policies and comparing results among other LMICs.

Conclusions

In a nationally representative sample of Indian SLT users, we found evidence to show SLT warnings in mass media may promote SLT cessation behavior. Mass media health warnings could play an important role in the overall strategy to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with SLT use.

Conflict of Interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate the encouragement, assistance, and advice from Dr. Thomas Novotny, Professor Emeritus, San Diego State University.

  • References

Characteristic

2009-2010

2016-2017

OR (95% CI)

P

AOR (95% CI)

P

OR (95% CI)

P

AOR (95% CI)

P

aAdjusted for age, sex, education, employment, SES index, region, urban/rural residence, visited a doctor, home smoking rules, noticed SLT advertisements, and believed SLT causes illness. SES index was derived from principal components analysis and included: electricity, a flushed toilet, fixed telephone, cellphone, television, radio, refrigerator, car, motorcycle, and washing machine; bSample weights, cluster, and stratification factors. SLT - Smokeless tobacco; CI - Confidence interval; OR - Odds ratio; AOR - Adjusted OR; SES - Socioeconomic status

Noticed SLT warnings (reference: no)

On SLT packages

1.73 (1.53-1.96)

<0>

1.27 (1.11-1.45)

<0>

1.66 (1.45-1.90)

<0>

1.26 (1.09-1.46)

0.002

In newspapers or magazines

1.92 (1.68-2.19)

<0>

1.39 (1.19-1.62)

<0>

1.67 (1.45-1.92)

<0>

1.37 (1.18-1.59)

<0>

On television

1.58 (1.40-1.79)

<0>

1.33 (1.16-1.53)

<0>

1.47 (1.28-1.68)

<0>

1.21 (1.04-1.41)

0.014

On the radio

1.45 (1.24-1.69)

<0>

1.30 (1.11-1.53)

0.001

1.71 (1.34-2.17)

<0>

1.41 (1.11-1.79)

0.006

On billboards

1.99 (1.72-2.30)

<0>

1.48 (1.26-1.74)

<0>

1.51 (1.30-1.75)

<0>

1.23 (1.05-1.43)

0.010

In cinemas

-

-

-

-

1.30 (1.12-1.52)

<0>

1.09 (0.92-1.29)

0.311

On the internet

-

-

-

-

2.03 (1.41-2.93)

<0>

1.60 (1.12-2.29)

0.009

On public transportation vehicles

-

-

-

-

1.63 (1.42-1.86)

<0>

1.31 (1.14-1.50)

<0>

On public walls

-

-

-

-

1.49 (1.30-1.72)

<0>

1.20 (1.04-1.40)

0.016
  1.  Vismita G. 90% of Smokeless Tobacco Users Live in South-East Asia. World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia. http://www.searo.who.int/mediacentre/releases/2013/pr1563/en Published 2013 Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 11]
  2.  Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Government of India. Global Adult Tobacco Survey GATS 2 India 2016-17.
  3.  Sinha D. Report on Oral Tobacco Use and its Implications in South-East Asia. World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia. Published; 2004. http://www.searo.who.int/tobacco/topics/oral_tobacco_use.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 11]
  4.  Brennan E, Durkin SJ, Cotter T, Harper T, Wakefield MA. Mass media campaigns designed to support new pictorial health warnings on cigarette packets: Evidence of a complementary relationship. Tob Control 2011; 20: 412-8
  5.  Bala MM, Strzeszynski L, Topor-Madry R. Mass media interventions for smoking cessation in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 11: CD004704
  6.  Murukutla N, Turk T, Prasad CV, Saradhi R, Kaur J, Gupta S. et al. Results of a national mass media campaign in india to warn against the dangers of smokeless tobacco consumption. Tob Control 2012; 21: 12-7
  7.  World Health Organization. Tobacco Free Initiative (TFI): Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Published; 2019. https://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/survey/gats/en Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Jun 04]
  8.  International Institute for Population Sciences: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Government of India. Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS India), 2009-2010. Published 2010. http://mohfw.nic.in/WriteReadData/l892s/1455618937GATS India.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2018 May 10]
  9.  Bhawna G. Burden of smoked and smokeless tobacco consumption in India results from the global adult tobacco survey India (GATS-India)- 2009-201. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2013; 14: 3323-9
  10.  Jena PK, Bandyopadhyay C, Mathur MR, Das S. Extending application of the 'hardcore' definition to smokeless tobacco use: Estimates from a nationally representative population in India and its implications. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2012; 13: 5959-63
  11.  Thakur JS, Prinja S, Bhatnagar N, Rana S, Sinha DN. Socioeconomic inequality in the prevalence of smoking and smokeless tobacco use in India. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2013; 14: 6965-9
  12.  Rahman MA, Mahmood MA, Spurrier N, Rahman M, Choudhury SR, Leeder S. et al. Why do Bangladeshi people use smokeless tobacco products?. Asia Pac J Public Health 2015; 27: NP2197-209
  13.  Madewell ZJ. The belief that secondhand smoke causes serious illness among Chinese smokers: Smoking cessation and intention to quit. Tobacco Prev and Cessation 2018; 4: 5 DOI: 10.18332/tpc/82813.
  14.  Madewell ZJ, Figueiredo VC, Harbertson J, Pérez RL, Novotny T. Exposure to smoking in soap operas and movies: Smoking cessation and attempts to quit. Cad Saude Publica 2017; 33 Suppl 3: e00118015
  15.  Sinha DN, Palipudi KM, Oswal K, Gupta PC, Andes LJ, Asma S. Influence of tobacco industry advertisements and promotions on tobacco use in India: Findings from the global adult tobacco survey 2009-2010. Indian J Cancer 2014; 51: S13-8 et al. Suppl 1
  16.  Mutti S, Reid JL, Gupta PC, Pednekar MS, Dhumal G, Nargis N. et al. Perceived effectiveness of text and pictorial health warnings for smokeless tobacco packages in Navi Mumbai, India, and Dhaka, Bangladesh: Findings from an experimental study. Tob Control 2016; 25: 437-43
  17.  Jain D, Jadav A, Rhoten K, Bassi A. The enforcement of India's tobacco control legislation in the state of Haryana: A case study. World Med Health Policy 2014; 6: 331-46
  18.  Begum S, Schensul JJ, Nair S. Effect of Indian women's exposure to warning messages on intention to quit smokeless tobacco. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol 2017; 6: 5354-8
  19.  Gravely S, Fong GT, Driezen P, Xu S, Quah AC, Sansone G. et al. An examination of the effectiveness of health warning labels on smokeless tobacco products in four states in India: Findings from the TCP India cohort survey. BMC Public Health 2016; 16: 1246
  20.  Mutti S. Perceptions of text and pictorial health warning labels for smokeless tobacco packages in Navi Mumbai, India, and Dhaka, Bangladesh: Findings from an experimental study. Tobacco Control 2016; 25: 437-43
  21.  Azagba S, Sharaf MF. The effect of graphic cigarette warning labels on smoking behavior: Evidence from the Canadian experience. Nicotine Tob Res 2013; 15: 708-17
  22.  Brewer NT, Hall MG, Noar SM, Parada H, Stein-Seroussi A, Bach LE. et al. Effect of pictorial cigarette pack warnings on changes in smoking behavior: A Randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2016; 176: 905-12
  23.  Broadcast Audience Research Council India. BARC India releases BI 2018 TV Homes in India Up by 7.5%; Total TV Viewership up by 12%. Published; 2018. https://www.barcindia.co.in/AnnouncementDetails.aspx?ID=127 Available from [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 20]
  24.  Surani NS, Gupta PC, Fong TG, Pednekar MS, Quah AC, Bansal-Travers M. et al. Intention to quit among Indian tobacco users: Findings from international tobacco control policy evaluation india pilot survey. Indian J Cancer 2012; 49: 431-7
  25.  Durkin S, Wakefield M. Comparative responses to radio and television anti-smoking advertisements to encourage smoking cessation. Health Promot Int 2009; 25: 5-13
  26.  Dhumal GG, Pednekar MS, Gupta PC, Sansone GC, Quah AC, Bansal-Travers M. et al. Quit history, intentions to quit, and reasons for considering quitting among tobacco users in India: Findings from the tobacco control policy evaluation India wave 1 survey. Indian J Cancer 2014; 51 Suppl 1: S39-45
  27.  Karekatti T, Wadgaonkar I. Nature of morning slot programmes on FM channels: A comparative study of tomato FM, radio mirchi and radio city in Kolhapur city. New Delhi Recognized J 2018; 6: 104-12
  28.  Kantar IMRB. I-CUBE Reports Published; 2018. https://imrbint.com/site/reports/i-cube Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 20]
  29.  Hong YH, Soh CH, Khan N, Abdullah MM, Teh BH. Effectiveness of anti-smoking advertising: The roles of message and media. Int J Bus Manage 2013; 8: 55
  30.  The World Bank. India Transport Sector. Published; 2013. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPTRANSPORT/0contentMDK:20703625~menuPK:868822~pagePK: 34004173~piPK: 34003707~theSitePK:579598,00.html Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 15]
  31.  Indian Railways. Indian Railways Yearbook 2011-2012. Published; 2011. http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/stat_econ/pdf/YEAR_BOOK_ENG_2011_12/1.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 20]
  32.  Li L, Borland R, Yong HH, Fong GT, Jiang Y, Li Q. et al. Reported exposures to anti-smoking messages and their impact on Chinese smoker's subsequent quit attempts. Int J Behav Med 2014; 21: 667-76
  33.  Davis RM, Kendrick JS. The surgeon general's warnings in outdoor cigarette advertising. Are they readable? JAMA 1989; 261: 90-4
  34.  Indian Readership Survey. IRS 2017 Release Notes. Published; 2017. http://mruc.net/uploads/posts/2b17d38a6cf860f0aabf1695c48b27ca.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 15]

Address for correspondence

Mr. Zachary J. Madewell
Doctoral Student in Epidemiology, University of California
San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92093
USA   

Publication History

Received: 04 June 2019

Accepted: 20 October 2019

Article published online:
03 June 2021

© 2019. Indian Society of Medical and Paediatric Oncology. This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonDerivative-NonCommercial-License, permitting copying and reproduction so long as the original work is given appropriate credit. Contents may not be used for commercial purposes, or adapted, remixed, transformed or built upon. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Thieme Medical and Scientific Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
A-12, 2nd Floor, Sector 2, Noida-201301 UP, India

  1.  Vismita G. 90% of Smokeless Tobacco Users Live in South-East Asia. World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia. http://www.searo.who.int/mediacentre/releases/2013/pr1563/en Published 2013 Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 11]
  2.  Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Government of India. Global Adult Tobacco Survey GATS 2 India 2016-17.
  3.  Sinha D. Report on Oral Tobacco Use and its Implications in South-East Asia. World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia. Published; 2004. http://www.searo.who.int/tobacco/topics/oral_tobacco_use.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 11]
  4.  Brennan E, Durkin SJ, Cotter T, Harper T, Wakefield MA. Mass media campaigns designed to support new pictorial health warnings on cigarette packets: Evidence of a complementary relationship. Tob Control 2011; 20: 412-8
  5.  Bala MM, Strzeszynski L, Topor-Madry R. Mass media interventions for smoking cessation in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 11: CD004704
  6.  Murukutla N, Turk T, Prasad CV, Saradhi R, Kaur J, Gupta S. et al. Results of a national mass media campaign in india to warn against the dangers of smokeless tobacco consumption. Tob Control 2012; 21: 12-7
  7.  World Health Organization. Tobacco Free Initiative (TFI): Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Published; 2019. https://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/survey/gats/en Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Jun 04]
  8.  International Institute for Population Sciences: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Government of India. Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS India), 2009-2010. Published 2010. http://mohfw.nic.in/WriteReadData/l892s/1455618937GATS India.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2018 May 10]
  9.  Bhawna G. Burden of smoked and smokeless tobacco consumption in India results from the global adult tobacco survey India (GATS-India)- 2009-201. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2013; 14: 3323-9
  10.  Jena PK, Bandyopadhyay C, Mathur MR, Das S. Extending application of the 'hardcore' definition to smokeless tobacco use: Estimates from a nationally representative population in India and its implications. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2012; 13: 5959-63
  11.  Thakur JS, Prinja S, Bhatnagar N, Rana S, Sinha DN. Socioeconomic inequality in the prevalence of smoking and smokeless tobacco use in India. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2013; 14: 6965-9
  12.  Rahman MA, Mahmood MA, Spurrier N, Rahman M, Choudhury SR, Leeder S. et al. Why do Bangladeshi people use smokeless tobacco products?. Asia Pac J Public Health 2015; 27: NP2197-209
  13.  Madewell ZJ. The belief that secondhand smoke causes serious illness among Chinese smokers: Smoking cessation and intention to quit. Tobacco Prev and Cessation 2018; 4: 5 DOI: 10.18332/tpc/82813.
  14.  Madewell ZJ, Figueiredo VC, Harbertson J, Pérez RL, Novotny T. Exposure to smoking in soap operas and movies: Smoking cessation and attempts to quit. Cad Saude Publica 2017; 33 Suppl 3: e00118015
  15.  Sinha DN, Palipudi KM, Oswal K, Gupta PC, Andes LJ, Asma S. Influence of tobacco industry advertisements and promotions on tobacco use in India: Findings from the global adult tobacco survey 2009-2010. Indian J Cancer 2014; 51: S13-8 et al. Suppl 1
  16.  Mutti S, Reid JL, Gupta PC, Pednekar MS, Dhumal G, Nargis N. et al. Perceived effectiveness of text and pictorial health warnings for smokeless tobacco packages in Navi Mumbai, India, and Dhaka, Bangladesh: Findings from an experimental study. Tob Control 2016; 25: 437-43
  17.  Jain D, Jadav A, Rhoten K, Bassi A. The enforcement of India's tobacco control legislation in the state of Haryana: A case study. World Med Health Policy 2014; 6: 331-46
  18.  Begum S, Schensul JJ, Nair S. Effect of Indian women's exposure to warning messages on intention to quit smokeless tobacco. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol 2017; 6: 5354-8
  19.  Gravely S, Fong GT, Driezen P, Xu S, Quah AC, Sansone G. et al. An examination of the effectiveness of health warning labels on smokeless tobacco products in four states in India: Findings from the TCP India cohort survey. BMC Public Health 2016; 16: 1246
  20.  Mutti S. Perceptions of text and pictorial health warning labels for smokeless tobacco packages in Navi Mumbai, India, and Dhaka, Bangladesh: Findings from an experimental study. Tobacco Control 2016; 25: 437-43
  21.  Azagba S, Sharaf MF. The effect of graphic cigarette warning labels on smoking behavior: Evidence from the Canadian experience. Nicotine Tob Res 2013; 15: 708-17
  22.  Brewer NT, Hall MG, Noar SM, Parada H, Stein-Seroussi A, Bach LE. et al. Effect of pictorial cigarette pack warnings on changes in smoking behavior: A Randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2016; 176: 905-12
  23.  Broadcast Audience Research Council India. BARC India releases BI 2018 TV Homes in India Up by 7.5%; Total TV Viewership up by 12%. Published; 2018. https://www.barcindia.co.in/AnnouncementDetails.aspx?ID=127 Available from [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 20]
  24.  Surani NS, Gupta PC, Fong TG, Pednekar MS, Quah AC, Bansal-Travers M. et al. Intention to quit among Indian tobacco users: Findings from international tobacco control policy evaluation india pilot survey. Indian J Cancer 2012; 49: 431-7
  25.  Durkin S, Wakefield M. Comparative responses to radio and television anti-smoking advertisements to encourage smoking cessation. Health Promot Int 2009; 25: 5-13
  26.  Dhumal GG, Pednekar MS, Gupta PC, Sansone GC, Quah AC, Bansal-Travers M. et al. Quit history, intentions to quit, and reasons for considering quitting among tobacco users in India: Findings from the tobacco control policy evaluation India wave 1 survey. Indian J Cancer 2014; 51 Suppl 1: S39-45
  27.  Karekatti T, Wadgaonkar I. Nature of morning slot programmes on FM channels: A comparative study of tomato FM, radio mirchi and radio city in Kolhapur city. New Delhi Recognized J 2018; 6: 104-12
  28.  Kantar IMRB. I-CUBE Reports Published; 2018. https://imrbint.com/site/reports/i-cube Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 20]
  29.  Hong YH, Soh CH, Khan N, Abdullah MM, Teh BH. Effectiveness of anti-smoking advertising: The roles of message and media. Int J Bus Manage 2013; 8: 55
  30.  The World Bank. India Transport Sector. Published; 2013. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPTRANSPORT/0contentMDK:20703625~menuPK:868822~pagePK: 34004173~piPK: 34003707~theSitePK:579598,00.html Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 15]
  31.  Indian Railways. Indian Railways Yearbook 2011-2012. Published; 2011. http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/stat_econ/pdf/YEAR_BOOK_ENG_2011_12/1.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 20]
  32.  Li L, Borland R, Yong HH, Fong GT, Jiang Y, Li Q. et al. Reported exposures to anti-smoking messages and their impact on Chinese smoker's subsequent quit attempts. Int J Behav Med 2014; 21: 667-76
  33.  Davis RM, Kendrick JS. The surgeon general's warnings in outdoor cigarette advertising. Are they readable? JAMA 1989; 261: 90-4
  34.  Indian Readership Survey. IRS 2017 Release Notes. Published; 2017. http://mruc.net/uploads/posts/2b17d38a6cf860f0aabf1695c48b27ca.pdf Available from: [Last accessed on 2019 Apr 15]

CONTACT US

QUICK LINKS

NEWSLETTER

Get all the information, latest updates delivered directly in your inbox

© Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology. Designed and Developed by Stackloom & Minerrals
//